From Sand to Chip

From the phone in your pocket to the computers that send humans to space, almost all modern electronics rely on tiny chips. Also called integrated circuits (ICs), chips are groups of circuits on silicon wafers.

Circuit elements on chips are mostly transistors—tiny electronic switches that open or close current. A single chip can contain billions of transistors. Silicon is produced from silica sand, which is refined into pure silicon. Molten silicon is cast into cylindrical ingots and sliced into wafers.

The wafer surface is oxidized to form silicon dioxide, coated with photoresist, and exposed through a patterned mask using UV light. Exposed photoresist is developed and removed to reveal oxide beneath for etching, leaving a 3D structure that matches the mask pattern. Transistors and interconnects are built on this structure. Many circuits are made on one wafer and later diced into individual chips.

Chips fall into two main types: memory chips for storage and logic chips acting as device brains. In 2019, over 634 billion chips were manufactured globally, with industry output reaching €412 billion. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted manufacturing while increasing demand for electronics, contributing to a global chip shortage.